17th Century Three New Types of Subject Matter Art

Blazon of painting

January Brueghel the Elder (1568–1625), Bouquet (1599). Some of the earliest examples of even so life were paintings of flowers by Netherlandish Renaissance painters. Still-life painting (including vanitas), as a particular genre, achieved its greatest importance in the Golden Age of Netherlandish art (ca. 1500s–1600s).

A however life (plural: still lifes) is a work of art depicting mostly inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which are either natural (food, flowers, dead animals, plants, rocks, shells, etc.) or man-fabricated (drinking spectacles, books, vases, jewelry, coins, pipes, etc.).^[1]

With origins in the Middle Ages and Ancient Greco-Roman art, still-life painting emerged every bit a singled-out genre and professional specialization in Western painting by the late 16th century, and has remained pregnant since then. Ane advantage of the still-life artform is that it allows an creative person much freedom to experiment with the system of elements within a composition of a painting. Nevertheless life, equally a particular genre, began with Netherlandish painting of the 16th and 17th centuries, and the English term still life derives from the Dutch discussion stilleven. Early still-life paintings, peculiarly before 1700, frequently contained religious and emblematic symbolism relating to the objects depicted. Later still-life works are produced with a variety of media and engineering, such every bit plant objects, photography, estimator graphics, as well every bit video and sound.

The term includes the painting of dead animals, especially game. Live ones are considered fauna fine art, although in practise they were ofttimes painted from expressionless models. Because of the use of plants and animals as a bailiwick, the still-life category also shares commonalities with zoological and especially botanical illustration. However, with visual or fine art, the work is not intended merely to illustrate the subject correctly.

Notwithstanding life occupied the everyman rung of the bureaucracy of genres, just has been extremely popular with buyers. As well every bit the independent all the same-life bailiwick, still-life painting encompasses other types of painting with prominent still-life elements, commonly symbolic, and "images that rely on a multitude of still-life elements ostensibly to reproduce a 'slice of life'".^[2] The trompe-l'œil painting, which intends to deceive the viewer into thinking the scene is real, is a specialized type of still life, commonly showing inanimate and relatively flat objects.^[3]

Antecedents and development [edit]

All the same life on a 2nd-century mosaic, with fish, poultry, dates and vegetables from the Vatican museum

Nevertheless-life paintings often adorn the interior of ancient Egyptian tombs. It was believed that food objects and other items depicted in that location would, in the afterlife, get existent and bachelor for utilize by the deceased. Aboriginal Greek vase paintings also demonstrate great skill in depicting everyday objects and animals. Peiraikos is mentioned past Pliny the Elder as a console painter of "low" subjects, such every bit survive in mosaic versions and provincial wall-paintings at Pompeii: "barbers' shops, cobblers' stalls, asses, commons and like subjects".^[4]

Similar still life, more merely decorative in intent, only with realistic perspective, have besides been establish in the Roman wall paintings and floor mosaics unearthed at Pompeii, Herculaneum and the Villa Boscoreale, including the later familiar motif of a glass bowl of fruit. Decorative mosaics termed "emblema", found in the homes of rich Romans, demonstrated the range of food enjoyed by the upper classes, and besides functioned as signs of hospitality and as celebrations of the seasons and of life.^[5]

By the 16th century, nutrient and flowers would again announced every bit symbols of the seasons and of the five senses. Also starting in Roman times is the tradition of the use of the skull in paintings every bit a symbol of mortality and earthly remains, often with the accompanying phrase Omnia mors aequat (Death makes all equal).^[6] These vanitas images have been re-interpreted through the last 400 years of art history, starting with Dutch painters around 1600.^[7]

The popular appreciation of the realism of yet-life painting is related in the ancient Greek legend of Zeuxis and Parrhasius, who are said to have in one case competed to create the most lifelike objects, history'southward earliest descriptions of trompe-l'œil painting.^[viii] Every bit Pliny the Elder recorded in ancient Roman times, Greek artists centuries earlier were already avant-garde in the arts of portrait painting, genre painting and still life. He singled out Peiraikos, "whose artistry is surpassed past only a very few...He painted barbershops and shoemakers' stalls, donkeys, vegetables, and such, and for that reason came to be called the 'painter of vulgar subjects'; yet these works are altogether delightful, and they were sold at higher prices than the greatest [paintings] of many other artists."^[nine]

Middle Ages and Early Renaissance [edit]

Hans Memling (1430–1494), Vase of Flowers (1480), Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid. According to some scholars the Vase of Flowers is filled with religious symbolism.^[10]

By 1300, starting with Giotto and his pupils, still-life painting was revived in the form of fictional niches on religious wall paintings which depicted everyday objects.^[xi] Through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, withal life in Western art remained primarily an adjunct to Christian religious subjects, and convened religious and allegorical pregnant. This was peculiarly true in the work of Northern European artists, whose fascination with highly detailed optical realism and symbolism led them to lavish great attention on their paintings' overall message.^[12] Painters like Jan van Eyck oftentimes used notwithstanding-life elements as part of an iconographic program.^{[ citation needed ]}

In the late Centre Ages, notwithstanding-life elements, generally flowers but too animals and sometimes inanimate objects, were painted with increasing realism in the borders of illuminated manuscripts, developing models and technical advances that were used past painters of larger images. There was considerable overlap between the artists making miniatures for manuscripts and those painting panels, especially in Early on Netherlandish painting. The Hours of Catherine of Cleves, probably made in Utrecht effectually 1440, is ane of the outstanding examples of this tendency, with borders featuring an extraordinary range of objects, including coins and fishing-nets, chosen to complement the text or main prototype at that particular point. Flemish workshops afterwards in the century took the naturalism of edge elements fifty-fifty further. Gothic millefleur tapestries are some other example of the general increasing interest in accurate depictions of plants and animals. The set of The Lady and the Unicorn is the all-time-known example, designed in Paris effectually 1500 and then woven in Flanders.^{[ citation needed ]}

The development of oil painting technique past Jan van Eyck and other Northern European artists fabricated information technology possible to paint everyday objects in this hyper-realistic mode, attributable to the irksome drying, mixing, and layering qualities of oil colours.^[13] Among the first to intermission free of religious meaning were Leonardo da Vinci, who created watercolour studies of fruit (around 1495) as part of his restless examination of nature, and Albrecht Dürer who likewise made precise coloured drawings of flora and fauna.^[14]

Petrus Christus' portrait of a bride and groom visiting a goldsmith is a typical instance of a transitional still life depicting both religious and secular content. Though by and large allegorical in bulletin, the figures of the couple are realistic and the objects shown (coins, vessels, etc.) are accurately painted just the goldsmith is actually a depiction of St. Eligius and the objects heavily symbolic. Some other similar type of painting is the family unit portrait combining figures with a well-set tabular array of food, which symbolizes both the piety of the human subjects and their thanks for God's abundance.^[15] Effectually this fourth dimension, simple even so-life depictions divorced of figures (but not emblematic meaning) were beginning to be painted on the outside of shutters of private devotional paintings.^[9] Another step toward the autonomous even so life was the painting of symbolic flowers in vases on the back of secular portraits effectually 1475.^[16] Jacopo de' Barbari went a step farther with his Still Life with Partridge and Gauntlets (1504), among the earliest signed and dated trompe-fifty'œil withal-life paintings, which contains minimal religious content.^[17]

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Later Renaissance [edit]

Sixteenth century [edit]

Though most still lifes later on 1600 were relatively small paintings, a crucial phase in the development of the genre was the tradition, mostly centred on Antwerp, of the "awe-inspiring all the same life", which were big paintings that included great spreads of still-life material with figures and oftentimes animals. This was a development by Pieter Aertsen, whose A Meat Stall with the Holy Family Giving Alms (1551, at present Uppsala) introduced the blazon with a painting that still startles. Some other example is "The Butcher Shop" past Aertsen's nephew Joachim Beuckelaer (1568), with its realistic delineation of raw meats dominating the foreground, while a background scene conveys the dangers of drunkenness and lechery. The type of very large kitchen or market scene developed past Pieter Aertsen and his nephew Joachim Beuckelaer typically depicts an abundance of nutrient with a kitchenware yet life and burly Flemish kitchen-maids. A minor religious scene can often be made out in the altitude, or a theme such as the Four Seasons is added to elevate the bailiwick. This sort of large-scale still life continued to develop in Flemish painting after the separation of the North and Southward, but is rare in Dutch painting, although other works in this tradition anticipate the "merry company" type of genre painting.^[eighteen]

Gradually, religious content diminished in size and placement in this blazon of painting, though moral lessons continued as sub-contexts.^[19] One of the relatively few Italian works in the style, Annibale Carracci's treatment of the same subject in 1583, Butcher'southward Store, begins to remove the moral letters, as did other "kitchen and market" still-life paintings of this period.^[20] Vincenzo Campi probably introduced the Antwerp way to Italy in the 1570s. The tradition continued into the next century, with several works by Rubens, who mostly sub-contracted the yet-life and creature elements to specialist masters such every bit Frans Snyders and his pupil Jan Fyt. By the second one-half of the 16th century, the autonomous still life evolved.^[21]

The 16th century witnessed an explosion of interest in the natural earth and the cosmos of lavish botanical encyclopædias recording the discoveries of the New Globe and Asia. It also prompted the beginning of scientific illustration and the nomenclature of specimens. Natural objects began to be appreciated equally individual objects of study apart from any religious or mythological associations. The early scientific discipline of herbal remedies began at this fourth dimension as well, which was a applied extension of this new knowledge. In addition, wealthy patrons began to underwrite the collection of beast and mineral specimens, creating all-encompassing cabinets of curiosities. These specimens served as models for painters who sought realism and novelty. Shells, insects, exotic fruits and flowers began to be collected and traded, and new plants such as the tulip (imported to Europe from Turkey), were celebrated in even so-life paintings.^[22]

The horticultural explosion was of widespread involvement in Europe and artist capitalized on that to produce thousands of all the same-life paintings. Some regions and courts had particular interests. The depiction of citrus, for instance, was a particular passion of the Medici court in Florence, Italian republic.^[23] This peachy diffusion of natural specimens and the burgeoning involvement in natural illustration throughout Europe, resulted in the nearly simultaneous creation of modernistic yet-life paintings around 1600.^{[24] [25]}

At the turn of the century the Spanish painter Juan Sánchez Cotán pioneered the Castilian still life with austerely tranquil paintings of vegetables, before entering a monastery in his forties in 1603, afterward which he painted religious subjects.^{[ citation needed ]}

Sixteenth-century paintings [edit]

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  Pieter Aertsen, A Meat Stall with the Holy Family unit Giving Alms (1551), 123.3 × 150 cm (48.5 × 59")

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  Juan Sánchez Cotán (1560–1627), Still life with Quince, Cabbage, Melon and Cucumber, oil on sheet, 69 × 84.5 cm

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  Giovanni Ambrogio Figino, Metal Plate with Peaches and Vine Leaves (1591–94), panel, 21 × 30 cm, his only known yet life

Seventeenth century [edit]

Prominent Academicians of the early 17th century, such every bit Andrea Sacchi, felt that genre and still-life painting did not carry the "gravitas" merited for painting to be considered great. An influential formulation of 1667 by André Félibien, a historiographer, architect and theoretician of French classicism became the archetype statement of the theory of the hierarchy of genres for the 18th century:

Celui qui fait parfaitement des païsages est au-dessus d'un autre qui ne fait que des fruits, des fleurs ou des coquilles. Celui qui peint des animaux vivants est plus estimable que ceux qui ne représentent que des choses mortes & sans mouvement ; & comme la figure de fifty'homme est le plus parfait ouvrage de Dieu sur la Terre, il est certain aussi que celui qui se rend l'imitateur de Dieu en peignant des figures humaines, est beaucoup plus excellent que tous les autres ...^[26]

He who produces perfect landscapes is above some other who only produces fruit, flowers or seafood. He who paints living animals is more than estimable than those who only represent dead things without movement, and as man is the most perfect work of God on the earth, it is besides certain that he who becomes an imitator of God in representing human figures, is much more excellent than all the others ...".

Dutch and Flemish painting [edit]

Pieter Claesz (1597–1660), Still life with Musical Instruments (1623)

Withal life adult every bit a separate category in the Low Countries in the terminal quarter of the 16th century.^[27] The English term even so life derives from the Dutch word stilleven while Romance languages (also as Greek, Polish, Russian and Turkish) tend to use terms pregnant dead nature. 15th-century Early Netherlandish painting had adult highly illusionistic techniques in both console painting and illuminated manuscripts, where the borders often featured elaborate displays of flowers, insects and, in a work like the Hours of Catherine of Cleves, a great variety of objects. When the illuminated manuscript was displaced by the printed book, the same skills were afterward deployed in scientific botanical illustration; the Low Countries led Europe in both phytology and its depiction in art. The Flemish creative person Joris Hoefnagel (1542–1601) made watercolour and gouache paintings of flowers and other still-life subjects for the Emperor Rudolf II, and there were many engraved illustrations for books (often and then paw-coloured), such as Hans Collaert's Florilegium, published by Plantin in 1600.^[28]

Around 1600 bloom paintings in oils became something of a craze; Karel van Mander painted some works himself, and records that other Northern Mannerist artists such as Cornelis van Haarlem besides did so. No surviving flower-pieces by them are known, but many survive by the leading specialists, Jan Brueghel the Elder and Ambrosius Bosschaert, both active in the Southern Netherlands.^[29]

While artists in the North found limited opportunity to produce the religious iconography which had long been their staple—images of religious subjects were forbidden in the Dutch Reformed Protestant Church—the continuing Northern tradition of detailed realism and hidden symbols appealed to the growing Dutch centre classes, who were replacing Church and State equally the primary patrons of art in the netherlands. Added to this was the Dutch mania for horticulture, particularly the tulip. These two views of flowers—equally aesthetic objects and every bit religious symbols— merged to create a very strong market for this type of still life.^[thirty] Nevertheless life, like most Dutch art piece of work, was generally sold in open markets or by dealers, or by artists at their studios, and rarely commissioned; therefore, artists usually chose the subject affair and arrangement.^[31] And so popular was this type of withal-life painting, that much of the technique of Dutch flower painting was codified in the 1740 treatise Groot Schilderboeck past Gerard de Lairesse, which gave wide-ranging advice on colour, arranging, brushwork, preparation of specimens, harmony, composition, perspective, etc.^[32]

The symbolism of flowers had evolved since early on Christian days. The nigh common flowers and their symbolic meanings include: rose (Virgin Mary, transience, Venus, love); lily (Virgin Mary, virginity, female breast, purity of listen or justice); tulip (showiness, nobility); sunflower (faithfulness, divine love, devotion); violet (modesty, reserve, humility); columbine (melancholy); poppy (power, sleep, death). As for insects, the butterfly represents transformation and resurrection while the dragonfly symbolizes transience and the ant hard work and attention to the harvest.^[33]

Flemish and Dutch artists likewise branched out and revived the ancient Greek nevertheless life tradition of trompe-fifty'œil, particularly the imitation of nature or mimesis, which they termed bedriegertje ("little deception").^[eight] In improver to these types of still life, Dutch artists identified and separately developed "kitchen and marketplace" paintings, breakfast and food table still life, vanitas paintings, and allegorical collection paintings.^[34]

In the Catholic Southern Netherlands the genre of garland paintings was developed. Around 1607–1608, Antwerp artists January Brueghel the Elder and Hendrick van Balen started creating these pictures which consist of an prototype (normally devotional) which is encircled past a lush notwithstanding life wreath. The paintings were collaborations between 2 specialists: a still life and a figure painter. Daniel Seghers developed the genre further. Originally serving a devotional function, garland paintings became extremely popular and were widely used as decoration of homes.^[35]

A special genre of notwithstanding life was the and then-chosen pronkstilleven (Dutch for 'ostentatious withal life'). This style of ornate still-life painting was developed in the 1640s in Antwerp past Flemish artists such equally Frans Snyders and Adriaen van Utrecht. They painted still lifes that emphasized abundance past depicting a diverseness of objects, fruits, flowers and dead game, often together with living people and animals. The style was shortly adopted by artists from the Dutch Republic.^[36]

Specially popular in this period were vanitas paintings, in which sumptuous arrangements of fruit and flowers, books, statuettes, vases, coins, jewelry, paintings, musical and scientific instruments, war machine insignia, fine silver and crystal, were accompanied by symbolic reminders of life's impermanence. Additionally, a skull, an hourglass or pocket watch, a candle burning downwardly or a book with pages turning, would serve equally a moralizing message on the ephemerality of sensory pleasures. Often some of the fruits and flowers themselves would be shown starting to spoil or fade to emphasize the same point.^{[ citation needed ]}

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  Jan Jansz. Treck (1606–1652), Still Life Pewter Jug and Ii Porcelain Plates (1645)

Another type of even so life, known equally ontbijtjes or "breakfast paintings", correspond both a literal presentation of delicacies that the upper grade might enjoy and a religious reminder to avoid gluttony.^[37] Around 1650 Samuel van Hoogstraten painted one of the outset wall-rack pictures, trompe-fifty'œil even so-life paintings which feature objects tied, tacked or attached in another mode to a wall board, a blazon of notwithstanding life very pop in the United States in the 19th century.^[38] Another variation was the trompe-l'œil all the same life depicted objects associated with a given profession, as with the Cornelis Norbertus Gysbrecht'southward painting "Painter's Easel with Fruit Piece", which displays all the tools of a painter'southward craft.^[39] Also popular in the first half of the 17th century was the painting of a large assortment of specimens in emblematic course, such as the "five senses", "4 continents", or "the iv seasons", showing a goddess or allegorical figure surrounded by appropriate natural and human-made objects.^[40] The popularity of vanitas paintings, and these other forms of all the same life, shortly spread from Holland to Flanders and Federal republic of germany, and also to Spain^[41] and French republic.

The Netherlandish production of still lifes was enormous, and they were very widely exported, especially to northern Europe; Britain inappreciably produced whatever itself. High german however life followed closely the Dutch models; Georg Flegel was a pioneer in pure still life without figures and created the compositional innovation of placing detailed objects in cabinets, cupboards, and display cases, and producing simultaneous multiple views.^[42]

Dutch, Flemish, German and French paintings [edit]

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  Peter Paul Rubens, Diana Returning from the Hunt, still life elements by a specialist (c. 1615)

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  Rembrandt, Still-Life with Two Dead Peacocks and a Daughter (c. 1639)

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  Pieter Boel (1626–1674), Still Life with a Globe and a Parrot (c. 1658)

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  Osias Beert the Elderberry, Dishes with Oysters, Fruit, and Wine

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  George Flegel (1566–1638), Still-Life with Bread and Confectionery, 1630

Southern Europe [edit]

In Castilian art, a bodegón is a still-life painting depicting pantry items, such as victuals, game, and drink, often arranged on a elementary stone slab, and also a painting with ane or more figures, only pregnant even so-life elements, typically set in a kitchen or tavern. Starting in the Baroque period, such paintings became popular in Espana in the second quarter of the 17th century. The tradition of however-life painting appears to have started and was far more popular in the gimmicky Low Countries, today Belgium and Netherlands (then Flemish and Dutch artists), than it ever was in southern Europe. Northern even so lifes had many subgenres; the breakfast slice was augmented past the trompe-50'œil, the blossom bouquet, and the vanitas.^{[ citation needed ]}

In Spain there were much fewer patrons for this sort of affair, but a type of breakfast slice did get pop, featuring a few objects of food and tableware laid on a tabular array. Nonetheless-life painting in Spain, also called bodegones, was austere. It differed from Dutch even so life, which often independent rich banquets surrounded by ornate and luxurious items of material or glass. The game in Spanish paintings is oft plain expressionless animals still waiting to be skinned. The fruits and vegetables are uncooked. The backgrounds are dour or evidently wood geometric blocks, oftentimes creating a surrealist air. Even while both Dutch and Spanish still life often had an embedded moral purpose, the austerity, which some notice akin to the bleakness of some of the Spanish plateaus, appears to reject the sensual pleasures, plenitude, and luxury of Dutch still-life paintings.^[44]

Even though Italian still-life painting (in Italian referred to every bit natura morta, "dead nature") was gaining in popularity, it remained historically less respected than the "grand manner" painting of historical, religious, and mythic subjects. On the other hand, successful Italian all the same-life artists found ample patronage in their day.^[45] Furthermore, women painters, few every bit they were, commonly chose or were restricted to painting nevertheless life; Giovanna Garzoni, Laura Bernasconi, Maria Theresa van Thielen, and Fede Galizia are notable examples.^{[ citation needed ]}

Many leading Italian artists in other genre, as well produced some still-life paintings. In particular, Caravaggio applied his influential class of naturalism to still life. His Basket of Fruit (c. 1595–1600) is 1 of the beginning examples of pure still life, precisely rendered and gear up at eye level.^[46] Though non overtly symbolic, this painting was owned by Key Federico Borromeo and may have been appreciated for both religious and aesthetic reasons. Jan Bruegel painted his Big Milan Bouquet (1606) for the cardinal, besides, claiming that he painted it 'fatta tutti del natturel' (fabricated all from nature) and he charged actress for the actress effort.^[47] These were among many still-life paintings in the fundamental's drove, in improver to his large drove of curios. Among other Italian withal life, Bernardo Strozzi's The Cook is a "kitchen scene" in the Dutch manner, which is both a detailed portrait of a melt and the game birds she is preparing.^[48] In a similar fashion, one of Rembrandt's rare still-life paintings, Petty Girl with Expressionless Peacocks combines a similar sympathetic female portrait with images of game birds.^[49]

In Catholic Italia and Spain, the pure vanitas painting was rare, and in that location were far fewer still-life specialists. In Southern Europe in that location is more employment of the soft naturalism of Caravaggio and less accent on hyper-realism in comparison with Northern European styles.^[l] In French republic, painters of still lifes (nature morte) were influenced by both the Northern and Southern schools, borrowing from the vanitas paintings of kingdom of the netherlands and the spare arrangements of Spain.^[51]

Italian gallery [edit]

Eighteenth century [edit]

Luis Meléndez (1716–1780), Still Life with Apples, Grapes, Melons, Bread, Jug and Bottle

The 18th century to a large extent continued to refine 17th-century formulae, and levels of production decreased. In the Rococo manner floral decoration became far more than mutual on porcelain, wallpaper, fabrics and carved wood effects, and then that buyers preferred their paintings to have figures for a dissimilarity. 1 change was a new enthusiasm amongst French painters, who now course a large proportion of the most notable artists, while the English language remained content to import. Jean-Baptiste Chardin painted modest and simple assemblies of food and objects in a virtually subtle style that both built on the Dutch Aureate Age masters, and was to be very influential on 19th-century compositions. Expressionless game subjects continued to be pop, particularly for hunting lodges; near specialists besides painted live beast subjects. Jean-Baptiste Oudry combined superb renderings of the textures of fur and feather with elementary backgrounds, often the plainly white of a lime-washed larder wall, that showed them off to advantage.^{[ citation needed ]}

By the 18th century, in many cases, the religious and allegorical connotations of still-life paintings were dropped and kitchen table paintings evolved into calculated depictions of varied color and form, displaying everyday foods. The French aristocracy employed artists to execute paintings of bounteous and improvident still-life subjects that graced their dining tabular array, also without the moralistic vanitas message of their Dutch predecessors. The Rococo honey of artifice led to a rise in appreciation in France for trompe-l'œil (French: "flim-flam the centre") painting. Jean-Baptiste Chardin's still-life paintings employ a multifariousness of techniques from Dutch-style realism to softer harmonies.^[52]

The bulk of Anne Vallayer-Coster's work was devoted to the language of still life equally information technology had been developed in the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.^[53] During these centuries, the genre of still life was placed lowest on the hierarchical ladder. Vallayer-Coster had a way nearly her paintings that resulted in their bewitchery. It was the "bold, decorative lines of her compositions, the richness of her colours and simulated textures, and the feats of illusionism she achieved in depicting broad variety of objects, both natural and bogus"^[53] which drew in the attending of the Regal Académie and the numerous collectors who purchased her paintings. This interaction between art and nature was quite common in Dutch, Flemish and French withal lifes.^[53] Her piece of work reveals the clear influence of Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, as well every bit 17th-century Dutch masters, whose work has been far more highly valued, but what made Vallayer-Coster's way stand out against the other still-life painters was her unique manner of coalescing representational illusionism with decorative compositional structures.^{[53] [54]}

The terminate of the eighteenth century and the autumn of the French monarchy closed the doors on Vallayer-Coster's still-life 'era' and opened them to her new style of florals.^[55] It has been argued that this was the highlight of her career and what she is best known for. However, it has likewise been argued that the blossom paintings were futile to her career. All the same, this collection contained floral studies in oil, watercolour and gouache.^[55]

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  Carl Hofverberg (1695–1765), Trompe-fifty'œil (1737), Foundation of the Royal Armoury, Sweden

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  Rachel Ruysch, Roses, Convolvulus, Poppies, and Other Flowers in an Urn on a Stone Ledge (1680s)

Nineteenth century [edit]

With the ascension of the European Academies, virtually notably the Académie française which held a central role in Academic art, withal life began to fall from favor. The Academies taught the doctrine of the "Hierarchy of genres" (or "Bureaucracy of Field of study Matter"), which held that a painting's artistic merit was based primarily on its subject. In the Academic system, the highest form of painting consisted of images of historical, Biblical or mythological significance, with still-life subjects relegated to the very lowest club of creative recognition. Instead of using notwithstanding life to glorify nature, some artists, such equally John Constable and Camille Corot, chose landscapes to serve that stop.^{[ citation needed ]}

When Neoclassicism started to get into pass up by the 1830s, genre and portrait painting became the focus for the Realist and Romantic creative revolutions. Many of the smashing artists of that period included nonetheless life in their trunk of work. The even so-life paintings of Francisco Goya, Gustave Courbet, and Eugène Delacroix convey a potent emotional electric current, and are less concerned with exactitude and more than interested in mood.^[56] Though patterned on the before even so-life subjects of Chardin, Édouard Manet's still-life paintings are strongly tonal and clearly headed toward Impressionism. Henri Fantin-Latour, using a more traditional technique, was famous for his exquisite flower paintings and made his living virtually exclusively painting still life for collectors.^[57]

However, it was non until the final decline of the Academic hierarchy in Europe, and the rising of the Impressionist and Post-Impressionist painters, that technique and colour harmony triumphed over subject affair, and that even so life was again avidly practiced by artists. In his early nonetheless life, Claude Monet shows the influence of Fantin-Latour, but is one of the starting time to intermission the tradition of the dark background, which Pierre-Auguste Renoir also discards in Yet Life with Bouquet and Fan (1871), with its bright orange background. With Impressionist still life, allegorical and mythological content is completely absent, as is meticulously detailed castor work. Impressionists instead focused on experimentation in broad, dabbing brush strokes, tonal values, and colour placement. The Impressionists and Post-Impressionists were inspired past nature's colour schemes simply reinterpreted nature with their own color harmonies, which sometimes proved startlingly unnaturalistic. As Gauguin stated, "Colours have their own meanings."^[58] Variations in perspective are also tried, such as using tight cropping and high angles, as with Fruit Displayed on a Stand by Gustave Caillebotte, a painting which was mocked at the time as a "display of fruit in a bird's-eye view."^[59]

Vincent van Gogh'southward "Sunflowers" paintings are some of the best-known 19th-century still-life paintings. Van Gogh uses more often than not tones of yellow and rather flat rendering to make a memorable contribution to nonetheless-life history. His Notwithstanding Life with Drawing Board (1889) is a self-portrait in still-life form, with Van Gogh depicting many items of his personal life, including his pipe, simple food (onions), an inspirational volume, and a letter of the alphabet from his brother, all laid out on his table, without his own image present. He besides painted his own version of a vanitas painting Still Life with Open Bible, Candle, and Book (1885).^[58]

In the U.s.a. during Revolutionary times, American artists trained abroad applied European styles to American portrait painting and still life. Charles Willson Peale founded a family of prominent American painters, and as major leader in the American art community, also founded a society for the grooming of artists as well as a famous museum of natural curiosities. His son Raphaelle Peale was i of a group of early American still-life artists, which also included John F. Francis, Charles Bird King, and John Johnston.^[lx] By the second half of the 19th century, Martin Johnson Heade introduced the American version of the habitat or biotope film, which placed flowers and birds in imitation outdoor environments.^[61] The American trompe-l'œil paintings also flourished during this period, created by John Haberle, William Michael Harnett, and John Frederick Peto. Peto specialized in the nostalgic wall-rack painting while Harnett achieved the highest level of hyper-realism in his pictorial celebrations of American life through familiar objects.^[62]

Nineteenth-century paintings [edit]

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  Henri Fantin-Latour, (1836–1904), White Roses, Chrysanthemums in a Vase, Peaches and Grapes on a Tabular array with a White Tablecloth (1867)

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  Paul Cézanne (1839–1906), The Black Marble Clock (1869–1871), individual collection

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Twentieth century [edit]

The first four decades of the 20th century formed an exceptional period of artistic ferment and revolution. Advanced movements chop-chop evolved and overlapped in a march towards nonfigurative, full brainchild. The still life, as well as other representational art, connected to evolve and accommodate until mid-century when total abstraction, as exemplified by Jackson Pollock's drip paintings, eliminated all recognizable content.^{[ citation needed ]}

The century began with several trends taking agree in art. In 1901, Paul Gauguin painted All the same Life with Sunflowers, his homage to his friend Van Gogh who had died eleven years earlier. The group known as Les Nabis, including Pierre Bonnard and Édouard Vuillard, took up Gauguin'south harmonic theories and added elements inspired past Japanese woodcuts to their however-life paintings. French creative person Odilon Redon also painted notable still life during this period, specially flowers.^[63]

Henri Matisse reduced the rendering of all the same-life objects fifty-fifty farther to little more than bold, flat outlines filled with bright colours. He besides simplified perspective and introducing multi-colour backgrounds.^[64] In some of his yet-life paintings, such equally Still Life with Eggplants, his tabular array of objects is nearly lost amidst the other colourful patterns filling the residue of the room.^[65] Other exponents of Fauvism, such every bit Maurice de Vlaminck and André Derain, farther explored pure colour and abstraction in their still life.^{[ citation needed ]}

Paul Cézanne found in even so life the perfect vehicle for his revolutionary explorations in geometric spatial system. For Cézanne, all the same life was a master ways of taking painting away from an illustrative or mimetic function to one demonstrating independently the elements of colour, form, and line, a major step towards Abstract art. Additionally, Cézanne'southward experiments can be seen as leading directly to the evolution of Cubist nonetheless life in the early 20th century.^[66]

Adapting Cézanne's shifting of planes and axes, the Cubists subdued the colour palette of the Fauves and focused instead on deconstructing objects into pure geometrical forms and planes. Between 1910 and 1920, Cubist artists like Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, and Juan Gris painted many withal-life compositions, oft including musical instruments, bringing still life to the forefront of creative innovation, nigh for the get-go time. Still life was also the bailiwick matter in the first Synthetic Cubist collage works, such as Picasso's oval "Still Life with Chair Caning" (1912). In these works, all the same-life objects overlap and intermingle barely maintaining identifiable two-dimensional forms, losing individual surface texture, and merging into the background—achieving goals nearly contrary to those of traditional all the same life.^[67] Fernand Léger's still life introduced the apply of arable white space and coloured, sharply defined, overlapping geometrical shapes to produce a more mechanical outcome.^[68]

Rejecting the flattening of space by Cubists, Marcel Duchamp and other members of the Dada movement, went in a radically different direction, creating 3-D "gear up-made" still-life sculptures. As part of restoring some symbolic significant to withal life, the Futurists and the Surrealists placed recognizable still-life objects in their dreamscapes. In Joan Miró'due south nevertheless-life paintings, objects appear weightless and bladder in lightly suggested two-dimensional infinite, and even mountains are drawn every bit uncomplicated lines.^[66] In Italian republic during this fourth dimension, Giorgio Morandi was the foremost still-life painter, exploring a wide variety of approaches to depicting everyday bottles and kitchen implements.^[69] Dutch artist M. C. Escher, best known for his detailed all the same ambiguous graphics, created Still life and Street (1937), his updated version of the traditional Dutch table still life.^[lxx] In England Eliot Hodgkin was using tempera for his highly detailed even so-life paintings.^{[ commendation needed ]}

When 20th-century American artists became aware of European Modernism, they began to interpret still-life subjects with a combination of American realism and Cubist-derived abstraction. Typical of the American still-life works of this period are the paintings of Georgia O'Keeffe, Stuart Davis, and Marsden Hartley, and the photographs of Edward Weston. O'Keeffe's ultra-closeup blossom paintings reveal both the physical structure and the emotional subtext of petals and leaves in an unprecedented mode.^{[ citation needed ]}

In Mexico, starting in the 1930s, Frida Kahlo and other artists created their own brand of Surrealism, featuring native foods and cultural motifs in their nonetheless-life paintings.^[71]

Starting in the 1930s, abstruse expressionism severely reduced notwithstanding life to raw depictions of form and color, until by the 1950s, total abstraction dominated the art world. However, popular art in the 1960s and 1970s reversed the trend and created a new course of still life. Much pop art (such as Andy Warhol's "Campbell's Soup Cans") is based on notwithstanding life, but its truthful subject is about oft the commodified prototype of the commercial product represented rather than the physical nonetheless-life object itself. Roy Lichtenstein's Still Life with Goldfish Bowl (1972) combines the pure colours of Matisse with the popular iconography of Warhol. Wayne Thiebaud'south Lunch Table (1964) portrays not a single family's lunch simply an associates line of standardized American foods.^[72]

The Neo-dada motility, including Jasper Johns, returned to Duchamp's three-dimensional representation of everyday household objects to create their own make of still-life work, as in Johns' Painted Statuary (1960) and Fool's House (1962).^[73] Avigdor Arikha, who began equally an abstractionist, integrated the lessons of Piet Mondrian into his withal lifes as into his other work; while reconnecting to old chief traditions, he accomplished a modernist formalism, working in 1 session and in natural low-cal, through which the discipline-matter often emerged in a surprising perspective.^{[ citation needed ]}

A significant contribution to the development of still-life painting in the 20th century was made by Russian artists, among them Sergei Ocipov, Victor Teterin, Evgenia Antipova, Gevork Kotiantz, Sergei Zakharov, Taisia Afonina, Maya Kopitseva, and others.^[74]

By contrast, the rising of Photorealism in the 1970s reasserted illusionistic representation, while retaining some of Pop'south bulletin of the fusion of object, paradigm, and commercial product. Typical in this regard are the paintings of Don Eddy and Ralph Goings.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Twentieth-century paintings [edit]

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21st century [edit]

During the 20th and 21st centuries, the notion of the still life has been extended beyond the traditional two dimensional art forms of painting into video fine art and 3 dimensional art forms such equally sculpture, performance and installation. Some mixed media nevertheless-life works employ establish objects, photography, video, and sound, and even spill out from ceiling to floor and fill an unabridged room in a gallery. Through video, notwithstanding-life artists have incorporated the viewer into their work. Following from the computer age with computer fine art and digital art, the notion of the still life has also included digital applied science. Estimator-generated graphics have potentially increased the techniques available to still-life artists. 3D estimator graphics and 2D computer graphics with 3D photorealistic effects are used to generate synthetic still life images. For example, graphic art software includes filters that can be practical to 2D vector graphics or 2nd raster graphics on transparent layers. Visual artists have copied or visualised 3D effects to manually render photorealistic effects without the apply of filters.^{[ commendation needed ]}

See besides [edit]

• Dutch Gilded Age painting
• List of Dutch painters
• Vanitas
• Memento Mori
• Still life photography

Notes [edit]

1. ^ Langmuir, 6
2. ^ Langmuir, 13–14
3. ^ Langmuir, 13–14 and preceding pages
4. ^ Volume XXXV.112 of Natural History
5. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 19
6. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p.22
7. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p.137
8. ^ ^{a b} Ebert-Schifferer, p. sixteen
9. ^ ^{a b} Ebert-Schifferer, p. 15
10. ^ Memlings Portraits exhibition review, Frick Collection, NYC. Retrieved March 15, 2010.
11. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p.25
12. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 27
13. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 26
14. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 39, 53
15. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 41
16. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 31
17. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 34
18. ^ Slive, 275; Vlieghe, 211–216
19. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 45
20. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 47
21. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p.38
22. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, pp. 54–56
23. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 64
24. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 75
25. ^ Metropolitan Museum of Art Timeline, Still-life painting 1600–1800. Retrieved March 14, 2010.
26. ^ Books.google.co.u.k., translation
27. ^ Slive 277–279
28. ^ Vlieghe, 207
29. ^ Slive, 279, Vlieghe, 206-7
30. ^ Paul Taylor, Dutch Flower Painting 1600–1720, Yale Academy Press, New Oasis, 1995, p. 77, ISBN 0-300-05390-viii
31. ^ Taylor, p. 129
32. ^ Taylor, p. 197
33. ^ Taylor, pp. 56–76
34. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 93
35. ^ Susan Merriam, Seventeenth-century Flemish Garland Paintings: Withal Life, Vision, and the Devotional Image, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2012
36. ^ Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms: Pronkstilleven
37. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 90
38. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 164
39. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 170
40. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, pp. 180–181
41. ^ Encounter Juan van der Hamen.
42. ^ Zuffi, p. 260
43. ^ Lucie-Smith, Edward (1984). The Thames and Hudson Dictionary of Art Terms . London: Thames and Hudson. p. 32. ISBN9780500233894. LCCN 83-51331
44. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 71
45. ^ La natura morta in Italia edited past Francesco Porzio and directed by Federico Zeri; Review author: John T. Spike. The Burlington Magazine (1991) Book 133 (1055) page 124–125.
46. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 82
47. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 84
48. ^ Stefano Zuffi, Ed., Baroque Painting, Barron's Educational Series, Hauppauge, New York, 1999, p. 96, ISBN 0-7641-5214-9
49. ^ Zuffi, p. 175
50. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 173
51. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 229
52. ^ Zuffi, p. 288, 298
53. ^ ^{a b c d} Michel 1960, p. i
54. ^ Berman 2003
55. ^ ^{a b} Michel 1960, p. 2
56. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 287
57. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 299
58. ^ ^{a b} Ebert-Schifferer, p. 318
59. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 310
60. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 260
61. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 267
62. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 272
63. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 321
64. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, pp. 323–4
65. ^ Stefano Zuffi, Ed., Modern Painting, Barron's Educational Series, Hauppauge, New York, 1998, p. 273, ISBN 0-7641-5119-iii
66. ^ ^{a b} Ebert-Schifferer, p. 311
67. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 338
68. ^ David Piper, The Illustrated Library of Art, Portland House, New York, 1986, p. 643, ISBN 0-517-62336-6
69. ^ David Piper, p. 635
70. ^ Piper, p. 639
71. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 387
72. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, pp. 382–3
73. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 384-6
74. ^ Sergei V. Ivanov, Unknown Socialist Realism. The Leningrad School. – Saint petersburg: NP-Print Edition, 2007. – 448 p. ISBN v-901724-21-six, ISBN 978-5-901724-21-7.

References [edit]

• Berman, Greta. "Focus on Art". The Juilliard Periodical Online eighteen:6 (March 2003)
• Ebert-Schifferer, Sybille. Still Life: A History, Harry N. Abrams, New York, 1998, ISBN 0-8109-4190-2
• Langmuir, Erica, Still Life, 2001, National Gallery (London), ISBN 1857099613
• Michel, Marianne Roland. "Tapestries on Designs by Anne Vallayer-Coster." The Burlington Magazine 102: 692 (November 1960): i–two
• Slive, Seymour, Dutch Painting, 1600–1800, Yale University Press, 1995, ISBN 0-300-07451-4
• Vlieghe, Hans (1998). Flemish Art and Compages, 1585–1700. Yale Academy Printing Pelican history of art. New Oasis: Yale Academy Printing. ISBN 0-300-07038-1

External links [edit]

• Media related to Still-life paintings at Wikimedia Commons

colemanandust.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Still_life

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